Intraoperative transfontanelle ultrasonography for pediatric patients

Article information

Anesth Pain Med. 2024;19(Suppl 1):S25-S35
Publication date (electronic) : 2024 October 28
doi : https://doi.org/10.17085/apm.24106
Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
Corresponding author: Jin-Tae Kim, M.D., Ph.D. Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul 03080, Korea Tel: 82-2-2072-3659 Fax: 82-2-747-8412 E-mail: jintae73@snu.ac.kr, jintae73@gmail.com
Received 2024 July 16; Revised 2024 August 22; Accepted 2024 September 4.

Abstract

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) plays a vital role in delivering cerebral oxygen, and the accurate assessment of CBF is crucial for the intraoperative management of critically ill infants. Although the direct measurement of CBF is challenging, CBF velocity (CBFV) can be assessed using transcranial Doppler. Recent advances in point-of-care ultrasound have introduced brain ultrasound as a feasible intraoperative option, in which transfontanelle ultrasonography (TFU) has been applied to measure the CBFV through the anterior fontanelle. However, the intraoperative application of TFU in pediatric patients remains limited. The present review highlights the procedural aspects and clinical applications of TFU for anesthetic and intensive care management in pediatric patients.

TFU facilitates the visualization of cerebral vessels and allows a noninvasive assessment of cerebral hemodynamics. The clinical significance of TFU involves its usefulness in various clinical scenarios, including monitoring CBF during cardiac surgery, assessing fluid responsiveness, and estimating intracranial pressure. TFU also enables the detection of cerebral emboli and the evaluation of anatomical abnormalities such as hydrocephalus or intracranial hemorrhage.

TFU has demonstrated potential as an invaluable tool in pediatric care, despite limited familiarity among anesthesiologists. Additional research is needed to explore the associations between CBF and clinical outcomes, focusing on autoregulation, the impact of physiological changes, the associations of TFU findings with other brain monitoring tools such as electroencephalography, cerebral oximetry, and the implications of microemboli. TFU is a significant advancement and valuable tool for noninvasively assessing cerebral hemodynamics and CBF in pediatric patients with open fontanelles.

INTRODUCTION

Assessment of the oxygen delivery capacity is crucial for the intraoperative management of critically ill patients [1,2]. In this context, measuring the cerebral blood flow (CBF) is a prerequisite for determining the oxygen delivery to the brain [3,4]. However, as measuring CBF is challenging, CBF velocity (CBFV) is measured instead [5]. Although transcranial Doppler (TCD) monitoring enables the measurement of CBFV, its clinical application in pediatric patients is limited because of the difficulty in maintaining an optimal sampling location due to the small vessel size in these patients [6,7].

TCD monitoring has been applied in critically ill neonates and children and the intraoperative management of patients undergoing cardiac and neurosurgical procedures [6,8-12]. However, this monitoring requires specially designed equipment, and there are cases where accurate measurement is difficult due to the movement of the probe. In contrast, transfontanelle ultrasonography (TFU) requires only a standard ultrasound machine with a sector probe, allowing for the measurement of blood flow in the cerebral vessels at the desired location. Notably, the alignment of the direction of ultrasound with the direction of blood flow enhances the accuracy of velocity measurements during TFU [13-16].

Despite being a highly useful approach for anesthetic and intensive care management in pediatric patients, intraoperative point-of-care TFU remains unfamiliar to many anesthesiologists and has been limited to clinical trials. Therefore, the present review explored the procedural aspects and clinical applications of TFU.

BASICS OF TFU AND NORMAL VALUES

Cerebral hemodynamics can be evaluated using two ultrasound techniques: nonduplex TCD and B-mode transcranial color-coded duplex Doppler (TCCD). TCD can analyze spectral waveforms, blood flow direction, and arterial depth to identify cerebral arteries, whereas TCCD enables the visualization of brain tissue and the circle of Willis, along with bidimensional pulsed-wave Doppler for waveform analysis [6]. TFU, as a point-of-care TCCD technique, enables the direct visualization of the brain parenchyma and cerebral arteries using B-mode, duplex, and color-coded imaging. Furthermore, it can be used to assess intracranial hemodynamics by assessing flow velocities and indices, such as pulsatility and resistance indices, of major cerebral arteries through flow tracing using the bidimensional pulsed-wave Doppler technique for waveform analysis of CBF [17].

In healthy infants, blood flows continuously through the cerebral arteries toward the brain throughout the cardiac cycle [18]. However, CBFV may fluctuate because of alterations in intracranial pressure, blood pressure, arterial carbon dioxide levels, temperature, and vascular resistance [1,19].

Additionally, various factors, including age, sex, cardiac output, anemia, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, administration of drugs that affect cerebral vasodilation, and body temperature, can also significantly affect CBFV [1,19]. Considering the importance of patient-specific factors in the assessment of CBFV, normal flow velocity values for healthy children and neonates have been established [6,20-22]. CBFV is higher in children than in adults, rising after birth until 6–8 years and then declining to approximately three-fourths of the maximal velocity by 18 years of age. In 1988, Bode and Wais established the normative values referenced in the recommended protocol for flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries in healthy children (Table 1) and healthy neonates (Table 2) [20].

Expected Mean (SD) Cerebral Blood Flow Velocities (cm/s) in Healthy Children by Age (n = 112)

Mean (SD) Flow Velocities in Basal Cerebral Arteries (cm/s) Reported in a Longitudinal Study Involving Normal Preterm and Term Neonates (n = 25)

Specific clinical conditions, such as anesthesia and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), also influence CBFV [14]. For instance, continuous monitoring of CBFV with NeoDoppler during anesthesia and surgery demonstrated a significant decrease in the end-diastolic velocity during anesthesia compared with baseline in infants with an open fontanelle undergoing noncardiac surgery [18]. TCD monitoring also revealed reduced diastolic blood flow velocity after anesthesia induction with sevoflurane in children < 6 months of age [23]. Notably, CPB during cardiac surgery in infants also alters CBF, and CBFV before, during, and after CPB differs according to the patient’s body weight (Table 3) [14].

Blood Flow Velocity and Resistance Index Before and After Cardiopulmonary Bypass

INTERPRETATION OF CEREBRAL DOPPLER PARAMETERS

Cerebral Doppler arterial waveforms can be analyzed by assessing the peak systolic flow velocity, end-diastolic flow velocity, and pulsatility and resistive indices, which are influenced by various physiological and pathological conditions. Among these parameters, alterations in diastolic flow primarily affect hemodynamics and may indicate reduced cerebral perfusion [17]. Based on the diastolic flow, the flow profiles can be classified as (A) normal flow, (B) increased diastolic flow, (C) decreased diastolic forward flow, and (d) missing diastolic flow, or (E) negative/retrograde diastolic flow [17,24]. Additionally, pathological conditions such as hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), asphyxia, and sepsis, may also lead to alterations in blood flow patterns [17]. For instance, diastolic flow in PDA reduces through left-to-right shunting, known as “diastolic steal,” via an open PDA (Fig. 1). Moreover, alterations in diastolic flow after asphyxia are associated with vasoparalysis, loss of autoregulation, molecular stress responses, and metabolic changes [25]. Conversely, systolic flow is less affected by intracranial factors. Instead, it reflects systemic parameters such as cardiac performance, blood volume, and the distribution and condition of larger arteries [17].

Fig. 1.

Missing diastolic flow because of left to right shunting (“diastolic steal”) through an open PDA in the left internal carotid artery (A) and recovered diastolic blood flow after PDA closure (B). PDA: patent ductus arteriosus.

The pulsatility index (PI) reflects resistance to blood flow and is calculated by dividing the difference between peak systolic and end-diastolic flow velocities by the mean flow velocity. An elevated PI is associated with increased intracranial pressure [26]. Particularly, a PI > 2.3 (normal < 1.2) in adults corresponds with an intracranial pressure > 22 mmHg [27,28]. Resistive index (RI) is another parameter reflecting the resistance to flow and is calculated as the difference between the peak systolic and end-diastolic flow velocities divided by the peak systolic flow velocity. The reported normal intracranial RI in normal full-term neonates during the first 24 h of life is 0.73 [29]. However, an increase in diastolic flow owing to the shift from fetal to newborn circulation leads to decreased average RI values with age, from 0.77 (± 0.15) in premature infants to 0.73 (± 0.57) in full-term infants, approximately 0.6 in children aged 1 year, and 0.43–0.58 in children aged > 2 years [29,30]. An RI of 0.6–0.9 is considered normal in both full-term and premature infants, whereas an RI of < 0.5–0.6 in any cerebral vessel is associated with a poor neurologic outcome [31].

PI and RI are affected by numerous factors, including flow velocity, blood volume, congenital cardiac anomalies, and peripheral vascular resistance [32,33]. Remarkably, a single measurement of Doppler parameters in the cerebral arteries may not appropriately predict well-being, brain injury, and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in an infant and fetus [17,34,35]. For instance, the RI can increase with decreased diastolic flow when the intracranial pressure exceeds systemic pressure due to cerebral swelling, thus obstructing cranial flow during diastole [7]. However, PDA is often the leading cause of increased RI in neonatal intensive care units [32,36]. Therefore, the anatomy must be simultaneously considered when evaluating the CBF indices.

The reliability of Doppler imaging is affected by natural variations in CBFV over time; therefore, multiple measurements of each vessel are crucial for accuracy. This complexity undermines the utility of simple cutoff values, such as the RI, for clinical decisions. Thus, repeated Doppler examinations offer a more detailed view of cerebral perfusion and disease progression than single measurements, emphasizing the need for continuous Doppler assessments to gain a comprehensive understanding of cerebral hemodynamics and guide more effective clinical decisions [35].

TFU METHODS

Transcranial ultrasound can be performed using five main windows: transfontanelle, transtemporal, trans-orbital, sub-mandibular, and suboccipital. The present review discusses the transfontanelle approach.

Fontanelles, often referred to as “soft spots,” are prominent anatomical features of the skulls of newborns. Among these, the anterior fontanelle is commonly used as an acoustic window for evaluating cerebral vessels in neonates [7]. The mean closure time of the anterior fontanelle ranges from 13 to 24 months. Before closure, cranial ultrasound can pass through these unhindered areas of the cranium to provide high-quality images. Color Doppler ultrasound can facilitate effective visualization of vascular structures including the basilar, internal carotid artery, and anterior and middle cerebral arteries, which form the circle of Willis.

TFU requires only a mobile two-dimensional ultrasound machine capable of high-resolution real-time imaging, utilizing a 4–10 MHz phased array probe or a high-frequency linear transducer (6–15 MHz). Using this approach, the entire brain can be scanned for a comprehensive understanding of the overall condition. Imaging of all suspected lesions in both coronal and sagittal planes is crucial, along with routine Doppler imaging to visualize the major veins and arteries [7,37].

The transducer should be positioned at the center of the anterior fontanelle, with the probe marker directed towards the right side of the neonate to capture images in the coronal plane. The brain is then scanned from the frontal to the posterior parietal and occipital lobes by tilting the probe forward and backward. Obtaining symmetrical images is crucial for accurate interpretation. Furthermore, meticulous examination of localized and widespread abnormalities in the cortex, white matter, deep gray matter, and ventricles is imperative. Color Doppler imaging is valuable for visualizing the basilar, internal carotid, and middle (including perforators) and anterior cerebral arteries, as well as for evaluating major venous drainage (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Coronal section. (A) Probe placement on the anterior fontanelle of the infant during cardiac surgery, (B) the coronal frontal image, (C) the coronal image at the level of Monro, and (D) the coronal section of the ACA, MCA, and both ICAs. ACA: anterior cerebral artery, MCA: middle cerebral artery, ICA: internal carotid artery.

To perform scans in the sagittal plane, the transducer should be rotated 90° so that the probe marker points toward the infant’s face. Images are captured in the midsagittal plane and two parasagittal planes on either side. Additionally, noting the brain side being imaged is critical while scanning these parasagittal planes. The evaluation involves the midline and adjacent structures including the cingulate gyrus, corpus callosum, tela choroidea, third ventricle, cavum septum pellucidi (including Verga’s ventricle), cavum veli interpositi, cisterns, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle, cerebellum, pons, and cisterna magna (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Sagittal section of the anterior cerebral and pericallosal arteries.

The cerebral arteries and veins can also be evaluated using color Doppler imaging through the anterior fontanelle. Images of the transverse sinuses at the cerebellum level can be captured in the coronal plane by locating the circle of Willis, including the internal carotid, middle cerebral, and anterior cerebral arteries near the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles. Moreover, the probe can be tilted backward to observe the basilar artery and nearby jugular veins, and further backward to visualize the internal cerebral and thalamostriate veins.

The flow velocity and RI of the anterior cerebral artery in the sagittal plane can be measured at specific sections, typically below the genu of the corpus callosum, which are referred to as the subcallosal anterior cerebral and pericallosal arteries.

Measuring the baseline CBFV in a hemodynamically stable state is important for monitoring changes in CBF during surgery, as it can serve as a reference for consecutive comparisons. Additionally, maintaining a consistent probe angle in the direction of blood flow is crucial for comparing each measurement.

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF TFU

Confirmation of CBF

TFU can be used to measure CBFV in the internal carotid, basilar, and anterior cerebral and middle cerebral arteries, which reflect CBF. Parameters that affect cerebral oxygen delivery, including cerebral perfusion pressure, blood pressure, cardiac output, hemoglobin concentration, oxygen saturation, head and neck position, PaCO2, temperature, and anesthetic concentration, should be assessed when the cerebral oximetry value decreases. If all these parameters are within the normal ranges, TFU can be used to assess the CBF. TFU is also a valuable tool for estimating blood flow to the posterior part of the brain, as the blood flow through the basilar artery can be measured. However, no techniques have yet been developed to evaluate oxygenation in the posterior part of the brain.

Cardiac surgery

TFU can be used to monitor changes in CBF at key points, including before and after the induction of anesthesia, during and after CPB, at the end of the surgery, and in cases of a sudden change in near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) readings or vital signs during cardiac surgery in infants.

TFU can assess CBF during surgery on major arch vessels. Reverse flow in the internal carotid artery reflects a relatively large aortopulmonary shunt. Notably, TFU can reveal the absence or reversal of diastolic blood flow in the internal carotid artery and can be observed in patients with large PDA or Blalock-Taussig (BT) shunt. Thus, TFU is a practical tool for assessing the patterns of shunt flow and cerebral perfusion before and after the modified BT shunt procedure [15].

TFU is also useful for detecting iatrogenic abnormal CBF patterns during BT shunt revision [39]. Reverse blood flow can be observed at the ipsilateral internal carotid artery through the circle of Willis because of the kink in the proximal left common carotid artery due to short shunt distance in patients following the BT shunt procedure from the left common carotid to the pulmonary artery (Fig. 4). Subsequently, aortopexy can be performed to relieve the kinked proximal left common carotid artery after observing the reverse flow using TFU.

Fig. 4.

Diastolic reverse flow with the absence of forward flow at the left internal carotid artery because of a kink in the proximal left common carotid artery (A) and recovered forward flow at the left internal carotid artery after aortopexy (B).

TFU is also effective for monitoring CBF during selective regional cerebral perfusion in aortic surgery. TFU and NIRS can be used to control the bypass flow rate to maintain baseline CBFV and rSO2 values during this procedure [13].

Fluid responsiveness

Respiratory variation of aortic blood flow peak velocity is a validated parameter for predicting fluid responsiveness in pediatric patients. Therefore, TFU can be used to predict fluid responsiveness in these patients. The respiratory variation in peak blood flow velocity in the internal carotid artery measured using TFU can predict an increase in stroke volume in response to fluid (Fig. 5) [16].

Fig. 5.

Respiratory variation in transfontanelle internal carotid artery blood flow velocity (A) and aorta blood flow velocity (B).

Increased intracranial pressure or central venous pressure and circulatory arrest

CBFV is affected by intracranial or central venous pressure. Increased intracranial pressure leads to decreased diastolic velocity (< 20 cm/s), decreased mean flow velocity, and increased PI (> 1.35–1.4) in adults. TFU can also detect reverberating flow, systolic spikes, and the absence of flow velocities in patients experiencing cerebral circulatory arrest [39].

Emboli

The identification of microemboli in TFU relies on the backscatter of ultrasound waves from the emboli, which produce high-intensity transient signals (HITS) or embolic signals in the Doppler spectrum (Fig. 6). However, further research is needed to determine the clinical implications of HITS.

Fig. 6.

HITS in the Doppler spectrum. HITS: high-intensity transient signals.

Anatomical evaluation

Ultrasonography can be used to identify pathological findings such as hydrocephalus, intracranial mass, intracranial hemorrhage, and subdural or epidural hematoma.

ROLE OF INTRAOPERATIVE TFU AS A NONINVASIVE OPTION FOR CEREBRAL PERFUSION

TCD monitoring and NIRS can provide continuous information on CBF and oxygenation in patients vulnerable to brain injury [40-42]. Point-of-care intraoperative TFU allows for the noninvasive confirmation of adequate CBF when NIRS values decrease. TCD monitoring shows reduced blood flow velocity, or CBF may decline due to decreased blood pressure. In particular, TFU provides a comprehensive real-time approach for monitoring CBF, offering critical information about brain perfusion noninvasively, making it especially useful for vulnerable populations like neonates and infants. However, studies on the impact of intraoperative TFU-guided management on clinical outcomes remain limited. Understanding the relationships among point-of-care TFU measurements, TCD and NIRS data, and neurological outcomes could significantly enhance our ability to predict and prevent adverse events, ultimately improving long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes.

FUTURE SCOPE

CBF regulation during anesthesia in pediatric patients, particularly neonates, warrants further investigation. The key areas of interest include elucidating the association among blood pressure, PaCO2, CBF, and cerebral autoregulation. Additionally, comparative studies with other noninvasive cerebral monitoring techniques such as NIRS, magnetic resonance imaging, and electroencephalography, are imperative. Additionally, the effects of pneumoperitoneum and altered CO2 levels on CBF and the potential influence of microemboli on clinical outcomes represent critical avenues for future research. Moreover, the correlation between the intraoperative application of TFU and the long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes of physiological alterations also requires thorough evaluation.

CONCLUSION

TFU is a useful tool for evaluating CBF in pediatric patients with open fontanelles.

Notes

FUNDING

This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (grant no. RS-2023-00280020).

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Writing - original draft: Eun-Hee Kim, Jung-Bin Park. Writing - review & editing: Jin-Tae Kim. Conceptualization: Eun-Hee Kim, Jung-Bin Park, Jin-Tae Kim. Data curation: Eun-Hee Kim, Jung-Bin Park. Formal analysis: Eun-Hee Kim, Jin-Tae Kim. Methodology: Jung-Bin Park, Jin-Tae Kim. Project administration: Eun-Hee Kim, Jin-Tae Kim. Funding acquisition: Eun-Hee Kim. Visualization: Eun-Hee Kim. Investigation: Eun-Hee Kim, Jung-Bin Park. Resources: Eun-Hee Kim, Jin-Tae Kim.

Supervision: Jin-Tae Kim.

References

1. Vutskits L. Cerebral blood flow in the neonate. Paediatr Anaesth 2014;24:22–9.
2. Vutskits L, Skowno J. Perioperative hypotension in infants: insights from the GAS study. Anesth Analg 2017;125:719–20.
3. Tzeng YC, Ainslie PN. Blood pressure regulation IX: cerebral autoregulation under blood pressure challenges. Eur J Appl Physiol 2014;114:545–59.
4. Fantini S, Sassaroli A, Tgavalekos KT, Kornbluth J. Cerebral blood flow and autoregulation: current measurement techniques and prospects for noninvasive optical methods. Neurophotonics 2016;3:031411.
5. Weyland A, Stephan H, Kazmaier S, Weyland W, Schorn B, Grüne F, et al. Flow velocity measurements as an index of cerebral blood flow. Validity of transcranial Doppler sonographic monitoring during cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1994;81:1401–10.
6. Vinci F, Tiseo M, Colosimo D, Calandrino A, Ramenghi LA, Biasucci DG. Point-of-care brain ultrasound and transcranial doppler or color-coded doppler in critically ill neonates and children. 2024;183:1059–72.
7. Couture A, Veyrac C, Baud C, Saguintaah M, Ferran JL. Advanced cranial ultrasound: transfontanellar Doppler imaging in neonates. Eur Radiol 2001;11:2399–410.
8. Polito A, Ricci Z, Di Chiara L, Giorni C, Iacoella C, Sanders SP, et al. Cerebral blood flow during cardiopulmonary bypass in pediatric cardiac surgery: the role of transcranial Doppler--a systematic review of the literature. Cardiovasc Ultrasound 2006;4:47.
9. White H, Venkatesh B. Applications of transcranial Doppler in the ICU: a review. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:981–94.
10. Verlhac S. Transcranial Doppler in children. Pediatr Radiol 2011;41 Suppl 1:S153–65.
11. Lovett ME, O'Brien NF. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound, a review for the pediatric intensivist. Children (Basel) 2022;16:727.
12. Leth-Olsen M, Døhlen G, Torp H, Nyrnes SA. Cerebral blood flow dynamics during cardiac surgery in infants. Pediatr Res 2024;doi: 10.1038/s41390-024-03161-z. [Epub ahead of print].
13. Lee JH, Min SH, Song IK, Kim HS, Kim CS, Kim JT. Control of cardiopulmonary bypass flow rate using transfontanellar ultrasonography and cerebral oximetry during selective antegrade cerebral perfusion. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2016;30:186–91.
14. Park YH, Song IK, Lee JH, Kim HS, Kim CS, Kim JT. Intraoperative trans-fontanellar cerebral ultrasonography in infants during cardiac surgery under cardiopulmonary bypass: an observational study. J Clin Monit Comput 2017;31:159–65.
15. Kim EH, Lee JH, Song IK, Kim HS, Jang YE, Kim WH, et al. Potential role of transfontanelle ultrasound for infants undergoing modified blalock-taussig shunt. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2018;32:1648–54.
16. Kim EH, Lee JH, Song IK, Kim HS, Jang YE, Kim JT. Respiratory variation of internal carotid artery blood flow peak velocity measured by transfontanelle ultrasound to predict fluid responsiveness in infants: a prospective observational study. Anesthesiology 2019;130:719–27.
17. Jarmund AH, Pedersen SA, Torp H, Dudink J, Nyrnes SA. A scoping review of cerebral Doppler arterial waveforms in infants. Ultrasound Med Biol 2023;49:919–36.
18. Vik SD, Torp H, Jarmund AH, Kiss G, Follestad T, Stoen R, et al. Continuous monitoring of cerebral blood flow during general anaesthesia in infants. BJA Open 2023;6:100144.
19. McCann ME, Schouten ANJ. Beyond survival; influences of blood pressure, cerebral perfusion and anesthesia on neurodevelopment. Paediatr Anaesth 2014;24:68–73.
20. Bode H, Wais U. Age dependence of flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. Arch Dis Child 1988;63:606–11.
21. LaRovere KL, O'Brien NF. Transcranial Doppler sonography in pediatric neurocritical care: a review of clinical applications and case illustrations in the pediatric intensive care unit. J Ultrasound Med 2015;34:2121–32.
22. O'Brien NF, Reuter-Rice K, Wainwright MS, Kaplan SL, Appavu B, Erklauer JC, et al. Practice recommendations for transcranial doppler ultrasonography in critically ill children in the pediatric intensive care unit: a multidisciplinary expert consensus statement. J Pediatr Intensive Care 2021;10:133–42.
23. Rhondali O, Mahr A, Simonin-Lansiaux S, De Queiroz M, Rhzioual-Berrada K, Combet S, et al. Impact of sevoflurane anesthesia on cerebral blood flow in children younger than 2 years. Paediatr Anaesth 2013;23:946–51.
24. Deeg KH RT, Hofbeck M. Doppler sonography in infancy and childhood Cham: Springer; 2014.
25. Greisen G. Cerebral blood flow and oxygenation in infants after birth asphyxia. Clinically useful information? Early Hum Dev 2014;90:703–5.
26. Bellner J, Romner B, Reinstrup P, Kristiansson KA, Ryding E, Brandt L. Transcranial Doppler sonography pulsatility index (PI) reflects intracranial pressure (ICP). Surg Neurol 2004;62:45–51. discussion 51.
27. Lau VI, Arntfield RT. Point-of-care transcranial Doppler by intensivists. Crit Ultrasound J 2017;9:21.
28. Denault A, Canty D, Azzam M, Amir A, Gebhard CE. Whole body ultrasound in the operating room and intensive care unit. Korean J Anesthesiol 2019;72:413–28.
29. Allison JW, Faddis LA, Kinder DL, Roberson PK, Glasier CM, Seibert JJ. Intracranial resistive index (RI) values in normal term infants during the first day of life. Pediatr Radiol 2000;30:618–20.
30. Lowe LH, Bulas DI. Transcranial Doppler imaging in children: sickle cell screening and beyond. Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:54–65.
31. Gray PH, Tudehope DI, Masel JP, Burns YR, Mohay HA, O'Callaghan MJ, et al. Perinatal hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury: prediction of outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol 1993;35:965–73.
32. Bulas DI, Vezina GL. Preterm anoxic injury. Radiologic evaluation. Radiol Clin North Am 1999;37:1147–61.
33. Soetaert AM, Lowe LH, Formen C. Pediatric cranial Doppler sonography in children: non-sickle cell applications. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol 2009;38:218–27.
34. Morris RK, Say R, Robson SC, Kleijnen J, Khan KS. Systematic review and meta-analysis of middle cerebral artery Doppler to predict perinatal wellbeing. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2012;165:141–55.
35. Camfferman FA, De Goederen R, Govaert P, Dudink J, Van Bel F, Pellicer A, et al. Diagnostic and predictive value of Doppler ultrasound for evaluation of the brain circulation in preterm infants: a systematic review. Pediatr Res 2020;87(Suppl 1):50–8.
36. Lowe LH, Bailey Z. State-of-the-art cranial sonography: Part 1, modern techniques and image interpretation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011;196:1028–33.
37. Ecury-Goossen GM, Camfferman FA, Leijser LM, Govaert P, Dudink J. State of the art cranial ultrasound imaging in neonates. J Vis Exp 2015;e52238.
38. Park JB, Cho SA, Jang YE, Kim EH, Lee JH, Ji SH, et al. Unusual cerebral blood flow pattern detected with intraoperative transfontanelle ultrasonography in infants undergoing rebanding of modified blalock-taussig shunt. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2021;35:1250–3.
39. Robba C, Taccone FS. How I use transcranial Doppler. Crit Care 2019;23:1–4.
40. Moritz S, Kasprzak P, Arlt M, Taeger K, Metz C. Accuracy of cerebral monitoring in detecting cerebral ischemia during carotid endarterectomy: a comparison of transcranial Doppler sonography, near-infrared spectroscopy, stump pressure, and somatosensory evoked potentials. Anesthesiology 2007;107:563–9.
41. Alexandrov AV, Sloan MA, Tegeler CH, Newell DN, Lumsden A, Garami Z, et al. Practice standards for transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound. Part II. Clinical indications and expected outcomes. J Neuroimaging 2012;22:215–24.
42. Bouzat P, Almeras L, Manhes P, Sanders L, Levrat A, David JS, et al. Transcranial Doppler to predict neurologic outcome after mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. Anesthesiology 2016;125:346–54.

Article information Continued

Fig. 1.

Missing diastolic flow because of left to right shunting (“diastolic steal”) through an open PDA in the left internal carotid artery (A) and recovered diastolic blood flow after PDA closure (B). PDA: patent ductus arteriosus.

Fig. 2.

Coronal section. (A) Probe placement on the anterior fontanelle of the infant during cardiac surgery, (B) the coronal frontal image, (C) the coronal image at the level of Monro, and (D) the coronal section of the ACA, MCA, and both ICAs. ACA: anterior cerebral artery, MCA: middle cerebral artery, ICA: internal carotid artery.

Fig. 3.

Sagittal section of the anterior cerebral and pericallosal arteries.

Fig. 4.

Diastolic reverse flow with the absence of forward flow at the left internal carotid artery because of a kink in the proximal left common carotid artery (A) and recovered forward flow at the left internal carotid artery after aortopexy (B).

Fig. 5.

Respiratory variation in transfontanelle internal carotid artery blood flow velocity (A) and aorta blood flow velocity (B).

Fig. 6.

HITS in the Doppler spectrum. HITS: high-intensity transient signals.

Table 1.

Expected Mean (SD) Cerebral Blood Flow Velocities (cm/s) in Healthy Children by Age (n = 112)

Age MCA ICA ACA PCA BA
Peak systolic velocities (cm/s)
 0–10 d 46 (10) 47 (9) 35 (8) NA NA
 11–90 d 75 (15) 77 (19) 58 (15) NA NA
 3–11.9 mo 114 (20) 104 (12) 77 (15) NA NA
 1–2.9 yr 124 (10) 118 (24) 81 (19) 69 (9) 71 (6)
 3–5.9 yr 147 (17) 144 (19) 104 (22) 81 (16) 88 (9)
 6–9.9 yr 143 (13) 140 (14) 100 (20) 75 (10) 85 (17)
 10–18 yr 129 (17) 125 (18) 92 (19) 66 (15) 68 (11)
Mean flow velocities (cm/s)
 0–10 d 24 (7) 25 (6) 19 (6) NA NA
 11–90 d 42 (10) 43 (12) 33 (11) NA NA
 3–11.9 mo 74 (14) 67 (10) 50 (11) NA NA
 1–2.9 yr 85 (10) 81 (8) 55 (13) 50 (12) 51 (6)
 3–5.9 yr 94 (10) 93 (9) 71 (15) 48 (11) 58 (6)
 6–9.9 yr 97 (9) 93 (9) 65 (13) 51 (9) 58 (9)
 10–18 yr 81 (11) 79 (12) 56 (14) 45 (9) 46 (8)
End-diastolic velocities (cm/s)
 0–10 d 12 (7) 12 (6) 10 (6) NA NA
 11–90 d 24 (8) 24 (8) 19 (9) NA NA
 3–11.9 mo 46 (9) 40 (8) 33 (7) NA NA
 1–2.9 yr 65 (11) 58 (5) 40 (11) 35 (7) 35 (6)
 3–5.9 yr 65 (9) 66 (8) 48 (9) 35 (9) 41 (5)
 6–9.9 yr 72 (9) 68 (10) 51 (10) 38 (7) 44 (8)
 10–18 yr 60 (8) 59 (9) 46 (11) 33 (7) 36 (7)

Values are presented as mean (SD). MCA: middle cerebral artery, ICA: internal carotid artery, ACA: anterior cerebral artery, PCA: posterior cerebral artery, BA: basilar artery, NA: not available. Mean flow velocity indicates the mean time of the maximal velocity envelope curve. Adapted from the article of Bode and Wais (Arch Dis Child 1988; 63: 606-11) [20].

Table 2.

Mean (SD) Flow Velocities in Basal Cerebral Arteries (cm/s) Reported in a Longitudinal Study Involving Normal Preterm and Term Neonates (n = 25)

Age MCA ICA ACA PCA BA
Peak systolic velocities (cm/s)
 1 d 42 (10) 35 (6) 32 (7) NA NA
 5 d 54 (10) 44 (10) 42 (7) NA NA
 10 d 61 (13) 51 (8) 44 (8) NA NA
 15 d 64 (10) 52 (8) 52 (7) NA NA
 20 d 70 (13) 62 (8) 57 (7) NA NA
Mean flow velocities (cm/s)
 1 d 22 (6) 18 (5) 17 (5) NA NA
 5 d 26 (6) 22 (6) 21 (6) NA NA
 10 d 30 (6) 27 (5) 23 (5) NA NA
 15 d 32 (6) 28 (4) 27 (5) NA NA
 20 d 37 (7) 33 (5) 31 (3) NA NA
End-diastolic velocities (cm/s)
 1 d 13 (4) 11 (4) 11 (5) NA NA
 5 d 15 (4) 12 (3) 13 (3) NA NA
 10 d 16 (3) 14 (3) 13 (3) NA NA
 15 d 17 (5) 14 (3) 16 (5) NA NA
 20 d 19 (6) 16 (3) 16 (2) NA NA

Values are presented as mean (SD). MCA: middle cerebral artery, ICA: internal carotid artery, ACA: anterior cerebral artery, PCA: posterior cerebral artery, BA: basilar artery, NA: not available. Mean flow velocity indicates the mean time of the maximal velocity envelope curve. Adapted from the article of Bode and Wais (Arch Dis Child 1988; 63: 606-11) [20].

Table 3.

Blood Flow Velocity and Resistance Index Before and After Cardiopulmonary Bypass

CPB timelines Weight < 5 kg (n = 16) Weight ≥ 5 kg (n = 19) P value
Pre-CPB Lt ICA PSV (cm/s) 69.4 (18.6) 85.9 (19.0) 0.015
Lt ICA EDV (cm/s) 16.5 (7.8) 22.9 (12.9) 0.093
Lt ICA RI 0.76 (0.08) 0.74 (0.11) 0.460
Rt ICA PSV (cm/s) 67.8 (20.8) 85.8 (18.5) 0.011
Rt ICA EDV (cm/s) 16.6 (6.1) 21.9 (11.1) 0.940
Rt ICA RI 0.75 (0.08) 0.75 (0.11) 0.940
pACA PSV (cm/s) 45.5 (13.4) 52.0 (11.3) 0.130
pACA EDV (cm/s) 12.0 (3.7) 17.1 (8.1) 0.021
pACA RI 0.72 (0.1) 0.68 (0.1) 0.240
CPB Lt ICA BFV (cm/s) 27.5 (8.9) 36.8 (11.2) 0.011
Rt ICA BFV (cm/s) 27.5 (8.3) 35.8 (11.5) 0.023
Post-CPB Lt ICA PSV (cm/s) 73.3 (16.0) 89.9 (19.8) 0.011
Lt ICA EDV (cm/s) 17.2 (9.3) 22.8 (10.2) 0.106
Lt ICA RI 0.78 (0.08) 0.75 (0.09) 0.400
Rt ICA PSV (cm/s) 71.0 (13.3) 87.9 (24.2) 0.018
Rt ICA EDV (cm/s) 16.1 (7.5) 22.8 (11.4) 0.073
Rt ICA RI 0.77 (0.08) 0.75 (0.09) 0.420
pACA PSV (cm/s) 47.8 (9.5) 60.5 (12.0) 0.002
pACA EDV (cm/s) 13.2 (6.2) 19.9 (8.6) 0.018
pACA RI 0.73 (0.08) 0.68 (0.1) 0.160

Values are presented as mean (SD). CPB: cardiopulmonary bypass, sys: systolic, dia: diastolic, Lt: left, Rt: right, PSV: peak systolic velocities, EDV: end diastolic velocities, RI: resistive index, ICA: internal carotid artery, pACA: peri-callosal part of the anterior cerebral artery. Adapted from the article of Park et al. (J Clin Monit Comput 2017; 31: 159-656) [14].